A SHORT HISTORY OF SCIENCE TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY A SHORT HISTORY OF SCIENCE TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY BY CHARLES SINGER OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1941 These times are the ancient times, when the world is ancient, and not those which we account ancient, online rttrogradQ by a computation backwards from ourselves. 1 Francis Bacon. The whole succession of men through the ages should be considered as one man, ever living and always learn ing Pascal. PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN PREFACE THIS book seeks to present, in simple form, the development of the conception of a rational and interconnected material world. It considers, therefore, both physical and biological, but not psy chological, social, or abstract mathematical problems. A natural pause is reached with the acceptance, in the nineteenth century, of that classical body of scientific doctrine which is the normal foundation of modern scientific discipline. So elementary a work can indicate only a very few out of many lines of thought, especially for, the period since the Revival of Learning. In dealing with these later centuries I have had recourse to a type-system. Persons, movements, advances, and inventions are selected as illustrative examples. No two writers would make the same choice mine has been determined largely with an eye to continuity in the narrative and, specifically, to the emergence of the doctrines of Energy, of Atomism, and of Evolution. It is impossible to complete even the simplest account of any human activity extending over two and a half millennia without a sense of inadequacy. Many reasons make this peculiarly true for science. In constructing this book I have felt, in particular, the lack of accepted precedents as to method. There are few com prehensive histories of science all are comparatively modern, and there is no consensus as to the lines on which such a work should be constructed. My own attempt is, I am aware, of an experi mental nature. I have been occupied upon this little book for far more years than the result may justify. Through all this time my wife and I have been engaged on complementary tasks and the work of each has made that of the other possible. Dr. Douglas McKie has been of assistance on many special points and has saved me from at least some errors. Moreover, for Chapter VIII, he has written most of Section 4 and some part of Section 5. Had he not done so the book would have been delayed yet longer.... Contents include: INTRODUCTION, Nature of the Scientific Process 1. What is Science ..... i 2. Origin of the Scientific Tradition . . .2 I. RISE OF MENTAL COHERENCE. The Foundations 600-400 B. C. Ionia, Magna Graecia, Athens 1. Beginnings of Ionian Science and the Eastern School . 6 2. The Pythagoreans and the Western School . 17 3. Fathers of Athenian Science . . , .26 II. THE GREAT ADVENTURE. Unitary Systems of Thought 400-300 B. C.. Athens 1. Plato and the Academy . . . . .32 2. Aristotle . . , . . - 39 3. Peripatetics , Stoics, and Epicureans . . 50 III. THE FAILURE OF NERVE. Divorce of Science and Philo sophy joo B. C.-A. D. 200 Alexandria 1. Early Alexandrian Period 300-200 B. C. . . .56 2. Archimedes. Rise of Mechanics . . . .63 3. Middle Alexandrian Period 200-0 B. C. . . .69 4. Late Alexandrian Period to A. D. 200 . . .80 IV...