Reverse Osmosis

Preface to the 3rd Edition xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
Section I: Fundamentals 1
1 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis: History, Challenges, and Future Directions 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 A Brief History of Reverse Osmosis 5
1.3 Challenges and Prospects 14
1.4 Summary 26
Symbols 26
Nomenclature 27
References 27
2 Principles and Terminology 33
2.1 Semipermeable Membranes 33
2.2 Osmosis 33
2.3 Reverse Osmosis 35
2.4 Basic Performance Parameters: Recovery, Rejection, and Flux 35
2.5 Filtration 43
2.5.1 Dead-End Filtration 43
2.5.2 Cross-Flow Filtration 43
2.6 Concentration Polarization 45
Symbols 47
Nomenclature 48
References 48
3 Membranes: Transport Models, Characterization, and Elements 51
3.1 Membrane Transport Models 51
3.2 Polymeric Membranes 57
3.3 Membrane Elements 80
3.4 Specialty Membranes and Elements 91
Symbols 95
Nomenclature 96
References 97
Section II: System Design and Engineering 103
4 Basic Design Arrangements and Concentration Polarization Guidelines 105
4.1 Arrays and Stages 105
4.2 Passes 113
Symbols 115
Nomenclature 115
References 115
5 RO System Design Using Design Software 117
5.1 RO System Design Guidelines 117
5.2 Step-by-Step Design-Sample Problem 118
5.3 Design Software 121
5.4 Optimum Design Result for the Sample Problem 140
Symbols 141
Nomenclature 141
References 142
6 Design Considerations 143
6.1 Feed Water Source and Quality 143
6.2 System Operations 149
6.3 Existing RO System Design Considerations 157
Symbols 161
Nomenclature 161
References 162
7 RO Equipment 163
7.1 Basic RO Skid Components 163
7.2 Skid Design Considerations 181
7.3 Energy Recovery Devices (ERDs) 196
7.4 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Equipment 200
7.5 Mobile RO Equipment 203
Symbols 205
Nomenclature 205
References 206
Section III: Membrane Deposition and Degradation: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation via Pretreatment and Operations 207
8 Membrane Scaling 211
8.1 What is Membrane Scale? 211
8.2 Effects of Scale on Membrane Performance 212
8.3 Hardness Scales 215
8.4 Silica Scale 226
8.5 Struvite 236
8.6 Scaling Mitigation Guidelines-Summary 239
Symbols 240
Nomenclature 240
References 240
9 Generalized Membrane Fouling 249
9.1 What is Membrane Fouling? 249
9.2 Classification and Measurement of Potential Foulants 250
9.3 Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance 265
9.4 Pretreatment to Minimize Membrane Fouling 279
9.5 Feed Water Quality Guidelines to Minimize Membrane Fouling 323
Symbols 324
Nomenclature 324
References 326
10 RO Membrane Biofouling 335
10.1 What is RO Membrane Biofouling? 335
10.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Biofouling 339
10.3 Effects of Biofouling on Membrane Performance 342
10.4 Measurement of Biofouling 343
10.5 Mitigation Techniques 345
10.6 Biofouling and Mitigation Summary 376
Symbols 378
Nomenclature 378
References 379
11 Membrane Degradation 387
11.1 Chemical Degradation 388
11.2 Mechanical Damage 404
Symbols 412
Nomenclature 412
References 412
Section IV: System Monitoring, Normalization, and Troubleshooting 417
12 Data Collection and Normalization 419
12.1 Data Collection 419
12.2 Data Normalization 422
Symbols 427
Subscripts 428
Nomenclature 428
References 428
13 Membrane Issues and Troubleshooting 431
13.1 Observed Performance Issues 432
13.2 Common Causes of Performance Failures 445
13.3 Troubleshooting Techniques 447
Symbols 471
Nomenclature 471
References 472
Section V: Off-Line Activities: Membrane Cleaning, Flushing, and Layup 475
14 Membrane Cleaning 477
14.1 When to Clean 478
14.2 Cleaning Chemicals 479
14.3 Cleaning Equipment Design 483
14.4 Cleaning Techniques 487
14.5 Determining the Efficacy of Cleaning 493
14.6 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Versus Offsite Cleaning 494
14.7 Membrane Disinfection 495
Symbols 500
Nomenclature 500
References 501
15 Controlling Off-Line Membrane Deposition via Flushing and Layup 505
15.1 Membrane Flushing 505
15.2 Membrane Layup 508
15.3 Membrane Preservation 510
Nomenclature 512
References 512
Section VI: Sustainability and Future Prospects 515
16 Concentrate Management 517
16.1 Discharge 517
16.2 Land Application 519
16.3 Reuse 519
16.4 Off-Site Disposal 523
16.5 Emerging Technologies for Concentrate Management 523
Symbols 529
Nomenclature 529
References 529
17 High-Recovery Reverse Osmosis 531
17.1 Single-Step High Recovery Processes 531
17.2 Enhanced High Recovery Processes with Interstage Solute Precipitation 548
17.3 Multi-Step High Recovery Membrane Processes 552
17.3.1 Toward Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) 552
Symbols 558
Nomenclature 558
References 559
18 New and Alternative Membrane Materials For Sustainability 565
18.1 Specific Requirements to Improve Sustainability 566
18.2 Membrane Materials to Meet RO Demineralization Challenges 571
Nomenclature 594
References 595
Index 601

Jane Kucera is a senior technical consultant with Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company, where she designs water and wastewater use and reuse facilities. With over 40 years of experience, she has an MS in chemical engineering and has authored two books, both with Scrivener Publishing, the first and second editions of Reverse Osmosis, and the first and second editions of Desalination: Water from Water. She is active in the International Water Conference (IWC) and served as the 2023 Conference Chair. She received the 2021 Award of Merit offered by the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania for her work in the water treatment industry and contributions to the IWC. Jane has a Teaching Credential from the State of California and taught chemistry at Linfield University, Los Angeles Valley College, and Central Oregon Community College.