Microplastics Analysis and Characterization

List of Contributors xix
Preface xxix
1 Microplastics: Existence and Fate in the Environment 1
Remya Ramachandran and Nithin Chandran
1.1 Microplastics 1
1.2 Primary MPs 2
1.3 Secondary MPs 3
1.4 Sources of Plastics and MPs in Terrestrial and Marine Environments 3
1.5 Effects of MPs in Biological Systems 5
1.6 MPs in Atmosphere 7
1.7 Methodologies Used for Identification and Characterization of MPs 9
1.8 Fourier Transformation Infrared Microscopy 9
1.9 Raman Spectroscopy 10
1.10 Hyperspectral Imaging 10
1.11 Scanning Electron Microscopy 11
1.12 Atomic Force Microscopy 11
1.13 Recent Studies on the Emergence and Fate of MPs 12
1.14 Abiotic Degradation 12
1.15 Biotic Degradation 13
1.16 Health Effects 15
1.17 Emerging Trends in the Management of MPs 16
1.18 Challenges in Managing MP Waste 20
2 Microplastics: Generation as Waste and Their Management and Legislation 33
Ajesh K Zachariah
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Generation of Microplastics 35
2.3 Microplastic Pollution 36
2.4 Harmful Effects 37
2.5 Need of the Hour 40
2.6 Management of MPs 43
2.7 Conclusion 47
3 How are Microplastics Generated? 51
Gabriel Enrique De-la-Torre, Diana Carolina Dioses-Salinas, Melisa D. Fernández Severini, Ana D. Forero López, Sina Dobaradaran, and Tadele Assefa Aragaw
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Microplastics: Sources and Size-based Terminology 52
3.3 Primary Microplastics 53
3.4 Secondary Microplastics 53
3.5 Conclusions 56
4 Physicochemical Properties of Microplastics 65
Fernández-Severini Melisa Daiana, Ardusso Maialen, De-la-Torre Gabriel, Buzzi Natalia Sol, and Spetter Carla Vanesa
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Physical Properties 66
4.3 Chemical Properties 82
4.4 Overview of the Most Employed Methods to Characterize the Physicochemical Properties of MPs 92
4.5 Contact Angle 101
4.6 Functional Groups on MPs and Their Environmental Reactivity 102
4.7 Physicochemical properties Influencing MP Aggregation 104
4.8 Regulations on MPs and the Role of Physicochemical Properties in Policy-making and Remediation Strategies 106
5 Degradation Behaviors of Microplastics 127
Domingos Lusitâneo Pier Macuvele, Ana Paula Fagundes, Natan Padoin, Humberto Gracher Riella and Cíntia Soares
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 MP Degradation 128
5.3 Toxicology of MPs 144
5.4 Concluding and Future Trends 152
6 Microplastic Collection and Sampling Techniques 165
João Frias
6.1 The Importance of Measuring 165
6.2 Diversity of Matrices = Diversity of Methodologies 167
6.3 Choosing the Appropriate Method to Sample Microplastics 169
6.4 Forensic Science Approaches to Reducing Cross-contamination 176
6.5 Ethical Considerations, Innovative Technologies, Remote Sensing, and Generative Artificial Intelligence 177
6.6 Comparing Apples with Apples: The Importance of Harmonized Reporting Units 178
6.7 Perspectives of Future Work in Research and Policy 178
7 Microplastic Separation Techniques 187
Shanthi Prabha Viswanathan, Giya Merline Kuriakose, Amalu Suresh, Sashika Sajan, Sruthi Binish, Shanty Chelekkattu Benny, Aparna Sabu, and Jeevan Joy
7.1 Introduction 187
7.2 Overview of MP Separation Techniques 191
7.3 Emerging Technologies in MP Separation 200
7.4 Challenges and Future Directions in MP Separation 203
7.5 Conclusion 205
8 Analytical Techniques for Microplastics Characterization 211
Rosa Peñalver, Natalia Arroyo-Manzanares, Natalia Campillo, and Pilar Viñas
8.1 Microscopic Techniques for Analysis of MPs 213
8.2 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analysis of MPs 214
8.3 Thermal Techniques for Analysis of MPs 219
8.4 Chromatographic Techniques for Analysis of MPs 220
8.5 Other Techniques for Analysis of MPs 229x Contents
8.6 Comparison of the Most Analytical Techniques for MP Characterization 231
9 Morphological and Physical Characterization of Microplastics 245
Gabriela Kalciková, Ula Rozman, and Tina Skalar
9.1 Introduction 245
9.2 Preparation of Microplastics 247
9.3 Characterization of Microplastics 249
9.4 Conclusion 259
10 Characterization and Quantification of Microplastics by Spectroscopy Techniques 273
C.V. Colombo, A.D. Forero-López, G.N. Rimondino, and G.E. De-la-Torre
10.1 Introduction 273
10.2 Spectroscopic Techniques Used to Study the Changes of Physicochemical Properties and the Behavior of MPs
276
10.3 Chemical Characterization of MPs from Different Environmental Matrices 281
10.4 Vibrational Spectroscopic Techniques 282
10.5 X-ray Spectroscopic Techniques 289
10.6 Mass Spectrometry 298
10.7 Summary 300
10.8 Conclusions 303
11 Analytical Methods and Characteristics of Microplastics in Sewage Sludge and Their Behavior 321
Satoshi Nakao and Tetsuji Okuda
11.1 Introduction 321
11.2 Methods for the Analysis of MPs in Sewage and Sewage Sludge 322
11.3 Behavior of MPs in Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment 327
11.4 Characteristics of MPs in Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment Processes 332
11.5 Study of MPs Removal Methods in Sewage Sludge Treatment Processes 334
11.6 MP Treatment Issues in Sewage Treatment 340
11.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 340
12 Microplastic Pollution in Backwaters, Major Urban Rivers, Seas, and Oceans 349
Shamiha Shafinaz Shreya, Mahir Tajwar, Raya Tarannum, and Md. Yousuf Gazi
12.1 Introduction 349
12.2 Sources and Transport Pathways of MPs Into the Aquatic and Marine Environment 352
12.3 Global Distribution and Abundance of MPs in Backwaters, Major Urban Rivers, Seas, and Oceans 356
12.4 Impacts of MPs on the Aquatic and Marine Environment 378
12.5 Conclusion 383
13 Airborne Microplastics 407
Aya Jasim Mohamad, Muhammad Tawalbeh, Neda Halalsheh, and Amani Al-Othman
13.1 Introduction 407
13.2 Sampling and Analysis of Airborne MPs 410
13.3 Sampling and Preparation of MPs 411
13.4 Identifying the Characteristics of Airborne MPs 416
13.5 Recent Research Findings in the Study of Airborne MPs 418
13.6 Implications of Airborne MPs on Earth and Human Health 419
13.7 Challenges and Outlook 422
13.8 Conclusions 424
14 Microplastics in Coastal and Offshore Waters: Sources, Sampling, Distribution, and Environmental Impacts 431
AbdulSalam Hussain Al Hashmi, Rajasekhar Thankamony, Hamad Abdulla Al Hammadi, and Thies Thiemann
14.1 Introduction 431
14.2 Sampling Techniques 434
14.3 Net-based Sampling Methods 434
14.4 Preparation of the Samples Before Analysis-Separation of MPs from the Surrounding Matrix 441
14.5 Analytical Identification of MPs 443
14.6 A Note on the Dissemination of MP Data in Nearshore and Offshore Waters 444
14.7 Modes of Entry of MPs into the Ocean 445
14.8 MP Contamination of Coastal Waters 451
14.9 MP Concentrations in Offshore Waters 453
14.10 MPs in Subsurface Water and in the Water Column 456
14.11 Circulation of MPs in the Oceans 457
14.12 The Oceans as a Sink for MPs and their Fate in the Marine Environment 459
15 Microbial Activity on Bioplastic Microparticles 487
Minoo Giyahchi and Hamid Moghimi
15.1 Summary 487
15.2 Bioplastics: Terminology, Classification and Properties 488
15.3 Bioplastics Toxicity: Are They Safer Than Conventional Plastics? 489
15.4 Micro-bioplastic: Formation, Properties, and Hazards 490
15.5 Microbial Activities on Micro-bioplastic Surface 492
15.6 Knowledge Gaps and Future Perspectives 504
15.7 Conclusions 505
16 Mitigation of Microplastics Impact in the Environment by Biobased Biodegradable Plastics 511
Aqsa Rasheed, Azeem Intisar, Mateen Hedar, Muhammad Imran Din, Ejaz Ahmed, Ahsan Sharif, and Zeeshan Mutahir
16.1 Introduction 511
16.2 Various Methods to Mitigate Microplastics from the Environment 512
16.3 Bioplastics 514
16.4 Biodegradation of Microplastics 516
16.5 Factors Affecting Microplastic Degradation 528
16.6 Utilization of Bioplastics 529
16.7 Most Economical Biodegradable Plastics 532
16.8 Conclusion and Future Prospective 533
17 Metal-Organic Frameworks for Microplastic Removal 545
Juliana De Gregori da Rocha, Domingos Lusitâneo Pier Macuvele, Humberto Gracher Riella, Natan Padoin, and
Cíntia Soares
17.1 Introduction 545
17.2 MPs: General Aspects 546
17.3 MOFs: Characteristics and Synthesis 550
17.4 MOFs: Adsorption, Filtration, and Photocatalysis 550
17.5 Concluding Remarks 561
18 Life Cycle Assessment of Microplastics 575
Sameh S. Ali
18.1 Introduction 575
18.2 Environmental Impacts of MPs 579
18.3 Life Cycle Assessment 580
18.4 Reducing Plastic Products 582
18.5 Challenges and Perspectives in MP LCA 588
18.6 Conclusions 589
19 Microplastics: Key Challenges and Future Perspectives 597
Nandhini Ishwarya Sivasubramanian, Sri Raagavee Sivakumar, Kamarajan Rajagopalan, Karthikeyan Subbiahanadar Chelladurai, and Jackson Durairaj Selvan Christyraj
19.1 Introduction 597
19.2 Future Perspectives 601
19.3 Key Challenges 604
19.4 Conclusion 610
20 Theoretical Studies and Machine Learning Techniques in Microplastics 615
Burak Tüzün, Ali Fazýl Yenidünya, and Serap Çetinkaya
20.1 Introduction 615
20.2 Microplastics 616
20.3 Sources and Inputs of MPs in Aquatic Environments 624
20.4 Identification and Quantification of MPs from Aquatic Environs 626
20.5 Inadequacy in Traditional MP Identification Methods and Tools 627
20.6 ML Overview 628
20.7 Challenges 633
20.8 Conclusion and Prospects 633
21 Numerical Simulation of Microplastic Transport in Circular Sedimentation Tanks Using MP-PIC Method 643
Danial Goodarzi, Abdolmajid Mohammadian, Abolghasem Pilechi, and Hamidreza Shirkhani
21.1 Introduction 643
21.2 Methodology 648Contents xvii
21.3 Results 659
21.4 MP Distribution 663
21.5 Conclusion 665
References 666
Index 673