Textile Microplastics in the Environment

Aravin Prince Periyasamy holds the position of Scientist specializing in Textile and Nonwoven materials at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, located in Helsinki, Finland. He is an active participant in several European Union and national-level projects pertaining to the circular economy of textiles. His past research includes waste-to-value processes with an emphasis on sustainable dyeing, biobased surface modification, and the emission of microplastics. He received his Doctorate in Textile Techniques and Material Engineering from the Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic.

Preface xi

1 Microplastics: General Prospectives 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Issues of Microplastics 4

1.1.2 Definition of Microplastics and Nanoplastics 6

1.2 Textiles and Microfibers, Classification 8

1.2.1 Synthetic Textiles and Emission of Microfibers 9

1.2.2 Microfibers Released from Man-Made or Regenerated Fibers 11

1.2.3 Microfibers or Fibrous Fragments from Natural Fibers 11

1.3 Microplastics in Air Stream - Case Studies with Some Cities 12

1.3.1 Indoor Air 12

1.4 Conclusion 14

References 15

2 Sources of Microplastics: Textile and Technical Textiles 19

2.1 Introduction 19

2.1.1 Yarns 22

2.2 Textile Characteristics as a Source 22

2.2.1 Yarn Structure and Microplastic Emission 23

2.2.1.1 Spinning Methods and Fiber Orientation 23

2.2.1.2 Yarn Twist and Strength 24

2.2.1.3 Yarn Count and Fineness 27

2.2.1.4 Yarn Types and Microplastic Emission 29

2.2.1.5 Yarn Count and Fineness 29

2.2.2 Fabric Structure Versus Fibrous Fragments 30

2.2.3 Coloration and Garmenting as a Source 33

2.3 Technical Textiles as a Source of Microplastics 34

2.3.1 Plastic Mulch Can Be a Major Source of Microplastics in Agricultural Soils and the Environment 37

2.3.2 Mattress 37

2.4 Aging of Textiles Versus Microplastics 38

2.5 Conclusion 40

References 41

3 Domestic Washing and Drying as the Source of Microplastics from the Textile and Garments 47

3.1 Introduction 47

3.2 Factors Influencing the Generation of Microplastics During Domestic Washing 47

3.2.1 Influence of Detergent and Softener 48

3.2.2 Fabric Softeners 50

3.2.3 Influence of Temperature 51

3.2.4 Influence of Washing Duration 53

3.2.5 Influence of Drying on Microfiber Releases 54

3.2.6 Overloading or Underloading 55

3.2.7 Type of Washing Machines 56

3.2.8 Effect of Textile Properties 57

3.3 Conclusion 58

References 59

4 Microplastics Pollution: Health Hazards 63

4.1 Introduction 63

4.1.1 Possible Routes for Human Exposure 64

4.1.1.1 Ingestion 65

4.1.1.2 Inhalation 66

4.1.1.3 Dermal Contact 67

4.2 Textile Functionalization as Source of Microfibers Toxicity 67

4.2.1 Fiber Production 67

4.3 Microplastic Contamination in Human Health 74

4.3.1 Inflammatory and Immune Responses 75

4.3.2 Gastrointestinal and Metabolic Disruptions 77

4.3.3 Respiratory System 77

4.3.4 Cardiovascular System 78

4.3.5 Nervous System 78

4.3.6 Reproductive System 79

4.3.7 Immune System 79

4.3.8 Microplastic-Induced Cancer 80

4.3.9 Toxicity Mechanisms 81

4.4 Conclusion 84

References 85

5 Characterization and Quantification of Microplastics 93

5.1 Introduction 93

5.2 Fibrous Microplastics 94

5.3 Microplastics Collection 100

5.3.1 Water Sampling 101

5.3.2 Sediment Sampling 103

5.3.3 Biological Sampling 103

5.3.4 Sampling Methods 104

5.4 Samples Pretreatment 104

5.5 Extraction of Microplastics 105

5.6 Separation of Microplastics 106

5.7 Characterization of Microplastics 108

5.7.1 Morphological Characterization 109

5.7.1.1 Chemical Characterization 113

5.7.1.2 Spectroscopic Methods 113

5.7.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 118

5.7.3 Raman Spectroscopy 121

5.7.3.1 Thermal Methods 125

5.7.3.2 Chemical Methods 129

5.8 Conclusion 129

References 130

6 Role of Machine Learning and Machine Vision on Microplastics 141

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 Machine Learning for Microplastics 143

6.2.1 Unsupervised Machine Learning Techniques 145

6.2.1.1 k-Means Clustering 145

6.2.1.2 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis 145

6.2.1.3 Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering 147

6.2.1.4 Principal Component Analysis 147

6.2.1.5 Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection 148

6.2.2 Supervised Machine Learning Techniques 148

6.2.2.1 Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogies 149

6.2.2.2 k-Nearest Neighbors 149

6.2.2.3 Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis 150

6.2.2.4 Support Vector Machine 150

6.2.2.5 Decision Trees and Random Decision Forests (RDF) 151

6.2.2.6 Artificial Neural Networks 152

6.2.2.7 Deep Learning 154

6.2.2.8 Image and AI or ml 155

6.3 Challenges 155

6.3.1 Cameras and Their Sensibility 155

6.3.2 Influence of Textile Functionalization on Image Capturing and Processing 156

6.3.3 Reference Libraries and Matching Software 157

6.3.4 Data Sharing and Storage with the Supply Chain 159

6.4 Conclusion and Future Scope 159

6.4.1 Future Scope 160

References 162

7 Positive Actions Toward Reductions in Microplastics: Part I 169

7.1 Introduction 169

7.2 Safe and Sustainable by Design Approach 170

7.2.1 Use of Bio-Based Fibers 170

7.2.2 Eco-friendly Manufacturing Processes 173

7.2.2.1 Use of Natural Dyes 173

7.2.2.2 Use of Bio-Based Finishing Additives 174

7.2.2.3 End of Life, Recycling, and Disposal Phase 175

7.2.2.4 Consumer Awareness 176

7.2.2.5 Domestic Washing Phase 177

7.2.2.6 Textile Finishing 180

7.2.2.7 Mechanical Finishing 180

7.2.2.8 Chemical Finishing 181

7.2.2.9 Enzymatic Treatment 181

7.2.2.10 Finishing with Resins 182

7.2.3 Pectin as Finishing Agent 183

7.2.3.1 Finishing with Biodegradable Polymers 184

7.2.4 Finishing with Chitosan 185

7.3 Conclusion 186

References 186

8 Positive Actions Toward Reductions in Microplastics: Part II 191

8.1 Introduction 191

8.2 Sustainable Consumption and Green Purchasing 192

8.2.1 Selecting Sustainable Materials 193

8.3 Use of Metaverse and Hyperpersonalization 196

8.4 EoL, Disposal Phase 198

8.5 Different Business Models and Their Impacts 200

8.6 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) 203

8.7 Digital Fashion and 3D Modeling to Reduce Production Waste and Microplastic Generation 203

8.8 Conclusion 208

8.8.1 Obstacles and Future Outlook 209

References 210

9 Standardization and Regulation for the Microplastic Reduction 213

9.1 Introduction 213

9.2 Global Standards for Microplastics and Their Quantifications 214

9.2.1 Standardization for the Quantification 219

9.3 Policies Toward the Reduction of Microplastics 220

9.3.1 EU Regulations 220

9.3.2 EU Microplastics Proposal 223

9.3.3 EU Green Deal 224

9.3.4 United States of America 226

9.3.5 Australia 226

9.3.6 South Korea 227

9.4 Conclusion 228

References 229

10 Elimination of Microplastics from Marine Environments 233

10.1 Introduction 233

10.2 Physical Method 234

10.2.1 Adsorption of Microplastics in Marine Environments 235

10.2.2 Filtration 239

10.2.3 Froth Flotation Method 241

10.3 Chemical Method 242

10.3.1 Coagulation and Flocculation 242

10.3.2 Electrocoagulation 244

10.3.3 Electrochemical Oxidation 245

10.3.4 Ozonation 245

10.3.5 Sol-Gel Technique 246

10.3.6 Photocatalytic Degradation 247

10.4 Biology Method 248

10.4.1 Fungal-Based Degradation of Microplastic 248

10.4.2 Bacterial-Based Degradation of Microplastic 249

10.4.3 Biodegradation with the Assistance of Enzymes 250

10.4.4 Biodegradation of Microplastics: Impact of Different Factors 254

10.5 Conclusion 256

References 256

11 Textile Recycling and Microplastics 263

11.1 Introduction 263

11.2 Recycling of Textiles 264

11.2.1 Fiber Mechanical Recycling of Textiles: Challenges and Opportunities 265

11.2.2 Thermo-Mechanical Recycling 267

11.2.3 Chemical Recycling of Textiles 269

11.2.4 Challenges in Textile Recycling 271

11.3 Conclusion 274

References 274

12 Wastewater Treatment Methods for Removal of Microplastics from Effluents 279

12.1 Introduction 279

12.2 Microplastics and Nanoplastics Characterization for Waste Treatment 280

12.2.1 Use of Membranes 283

12.2.2 Clarification 292

12.2.3 Filtration 293

12.2.4 Reverse Osmosis 297

12.2.5 Filtration Using Nanofiber Filters 298

12.2.6 Electrodialysis 298

12.2.7 Membrane Fouling 300

12.2.8 Membrane Filtration Models 303

12.3 Conclusion 304

References 304

Index 313