Chechnya declared its independence during the chaos of the dissolution of the USSR and the emergence of Russia in 1991. Chechen independence threatened Russia's territorial integrity however, resulting in two wars between Russia and Chechen rebels that lay waste to Chechnya and killed an estimated 100,000 people. Russia's harsh methods during both wars resulted in reprisal attacks on Russian targets, instability in Chechnya, and a widening insurgency in the North Caucasus. The Kremlin's response to each successive attack has been the use of force and population control measures against its Caucasian population. Russia's reliance on military force and the aggressive application of population control measures against its Caucasian population, while ignoring other options for conflict resolution, has ensured continued discord in the North Caucasus, jeopardizing the flow of Russian energy in the Caspian basin, and endangers future Federation stability and security. To reduce further threat, Russia must learn from its mistakes and adapt its methods, or risk future attacks and the spread of Islamic extremism in the North Caucasus.