A Brief Guide to Writing Academic Arguments

Contents Preface
Acknowledgments
 
Ch. 1     What Makes an Academic Argument “Academic”?
What “Argument” Means in an Academic Setting
Context Is Everything: Understanding the Rhetorical Situation of Academic Arguments
Elements of the Rhetorical Situation
     How the Elements of the Rhetorical Situation Are Interconnected
Reading: “Generation Q,” by Thomas L. Friedman
 
Qualities of Effective Academic Arguments
     Effective Academic Arguments Are Clear and Precise
     Effective Academic Arguments Are Well Supported
     Effective Academic Arguments Are Properly Qualified 
     Effective Academic Arguments Are Placed in Context
     Effective Academic Arguments Employ an Appropriate Voice and Tone
     Effective Academic Arguments Follow Established Conventions      
     Effective Academic Arguments Are Sensitive to Audience Needs
 
Ch.2     The Elements of Persuasive Academic Arguments         
What Makes Academic Arguments Persuasive?
Logos: The Role of Logic and Reason in Academic Arguments
     Claims
     Grounds 
     Explanations
     Qualifications
     Rebuttals
     Logos in Action: A Sample Argument
     Sample Reading: Letter to the Editor
     Common Logos-related Fallacies
Pathos: The Role of Emotion in Academic Arguments
     Pathos in Action: A Sample Essay
     Reading: “Perils and Promise: Destroy an Embryo, Waste a Life,” by Christopher H. Smith
     How Pathos Can Help You Develop Content and Choose Language
     How Pathos Can Help You Create a  Bond with Your Audience
     How Pathos Can Help You Communicate Your Own Emotional Investment in Your Argument
     Common Pathos-related Fallacies
Ethos: The Role of the Writer’s Authority and Credibility in Academic Arguments
     Establishing Ethos through Your Knowledge of the Topic
     Establishing Ethos through Accurate Writing
     Establishing Ethos by Being Open Minded, Honest, and Fair
     Establishing Ethos by Following Conventions
     Ethos in Action: A Sample Reading        
     Reading: “Embryo Ethics: The Moral Logic of Stem-cell Research,” by Michael J. Sandel
     Common Ethos-related Fallacies
The Interrelatedness of Logos, Pathos, and Ethos
 
Ch. 3     Reading Academic Arguments Critically
 A Process Approach to Critical Reading
Pre-reading Strategies
Reading: “Rank Colleges, but Rank Them Right,” by David Leonhardt
Comprehending Arguments
     Sample Annotated Text
Analyzing Arguments
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument’s Author
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument’s Topic
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument’s Audience
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument’s Purpose
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument’s Occasion
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument's Claims
     Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument’s Structure
    Analytical Questions Regarding an Argument's Language
Evaluating Arguments
     Evaluating the Quality of an Argument’s Claims
     Evaluating the Quality of an Argument’s Grounds
     Evaluating the Quality of an Argument’s Explanations
     Evaluating the Quality of an Argument’s Rebuttals
 
Ch.4     The Role of Claims in Academic Arguments
What Claims Are and What They Aren’t
     Claims Are Debatable
     Claims Are Substantive
     Claims Are Sincere
Stating Claims Effectively
     Effective Claims Are Precise
     Effective Claims Are Clear
     Effective Claims Are Properly Qualified
     Effective Claims Are Affirmative
The Structure of Claims in Academic Arguments
The Process of Crafting Claims
 
Ch. 5     Supporting Claims
The Role of Reasons in Supporting Arguments
     The Relationship between Claims and Reasons
     Choosing Which Reasons to Include in an Argument
     Choosing How Many Reasons to Include in an Argument
     Organizing Reasons in Support of a Thesis
     Note: Using First-person Point of View When Stating Reasons           
The Role of Evidence in Supporting Arguments
     Types of Evidence Commonly Employed in Academic Writing
     What Makes Evidence Persuasive
The Role of Beliefs and Values in Supporting Arguments
     Stating Beliefs and Values in Support of an Argument
    Leaving Beliefs and Values Unstated in an Argument
 
Ch. 6     Explaining Your Argument
Connecting Claims, Reasons, and Evidence
     Case in Point: The TV Courtroom Drama
     Explaining Your Argument: An Exercise
What to Explain and How to Explain It
     What Typically Needs Explanation
     Explaining Arguments: An Example
     Reading: “Student Cheating,” by Bill Puka
 
Ch. 7     Qualifying Claims and Rebutting Opposition in Academic Arguments
Why You Need to Qualify Your Claims in Academic Arguments
     Qualified Claims Tend to Be More Honest Than Unqualified Claims
     Qualified Claims Are Easier to Support Than Are Unqualified Claims
     Qualified Claims Are More Difficult to Refute Than Are Unqualified Claims
     Qualified Claims Conform to the Conventions of Academic Writing
Language Commonly Used to Qualify Claims
Addressing Opposition in Academic Arguments
     Why It Is Important to Research and Address Opposing Views in Academic Arguments
     Anticipating Opposition
     Rebutting Opposition
 
Ch. 8     Working with Sources in Academic Arguments
Roles Sources Commonly Play in Academic Arguments
     Provide Background Information
     Support Claims
     Present Opposing Views
     Improve Ethos
Techniques Commonly Used to Integrate Source Material into Academic Arguments
     Reading: “Regular Exercise and Weight Management: Myths and Reality,”  Steven Jonas
Summarizing Material
     Qualities of a Good Summary
     Writing a Summary
Paraphrasing Material
     When and Why to Paraphrase Material
     Qualities of a Good Paraphrase
     How to Paraphrase Material
Quoting Material
     When and Why to Quote Material
     How to Quote Material
Avoiding Plagiarism
     Common Forms of Plagiarism in Academic Writing
     Avoiding Problems with Plagiarism       
 
Ch. 9     Working with the Visual Elements of Academic Arguments
Why It’s Important to Understand the Visual Elements of Arguments
How Visuals Function in Academic Arguments
     Using Visuals to Make an Argument
     Using Visuals to Support an Argument
     Using Visuals to Make an Argument Easier to Understand
Reading Visual Texts Critically
     Reading Pictures and Drawings
     Reading Diagrams, Tables, and Graphs
Working with Pictures, Drawings, and Diagrams
     Qualities of Effective Pictures, Drawings, and Diagrams
Working with Tables
     Qualities of Effective Tables
Working with Graphs
     Common Types of Graphs
     Qualities of Effective Graphs
Working with Typographical Features of a Text
      Effective Use of Typographical Features
 
Ch. 10    Writing Arguments: An Overview
Understanding the Rhetorical Situation of an Assignment
Working with Assigned Topics
Working with Open Topics
     Choosing a Topic for an Argumentative Essay: A General Heuristic
     Choosing a Topic for an Argumentative Essay: A Stasis-based Heuristic
Narrowing and Focusing a Topic
Investigating the Topic
     Investigating a Topic through Reflection
     Investigating a Topic through Research
Understanding the Role of Thesis Statements in Academic Writing
    Choosing Among Possible Positions
    Common Types of Thesis Statements in Academic Writing
    Crafting a Thesis Statement: A Process Approach
    Thesis Placement
Organizing an Argument
    Opening and Closing Sections in Academic Arguments
    Organizing the Body of Academic Arguments
    Organizing Academic Arguments around Thesis Statements and Topic Sentences
Drafting an Argument
    Composing Strategies: Three Common Models
    BOX: Writing Habit Inventory
    Overcoming Problems that Commonly Arise When Drafting Academic Arguments
Revising an Argument
    Revising Content
    Revising Structure
    Revising Mechanics and Style
    Revising Quoted and Paraphrased Material
    Revising Documentation    
 
Ch. 11     Writing Definition Arguments
What Are Definition Arguments?
Types of Definition Arguments
     Stipulative Definitions
     Categorical Definitions
Writing a Stipulative Definition Argument
     A Model Process for Writing Stipulative Definition Arguments
     Common Errors to Avoid When Writing a Stipulative Definition Argument
     Sample Student Essay: Stipulative Definition Argument
          “What Is Global Warming,” by Cassandra Leigh Stemsky
Writing a Categorical Definition Argument
     A Model Process for Writing Categorical Definition Arguments
     Common Errors to Avoid When Writing a Categorical Definition Argument
     Sample Student Essay: Categorical Definition Argument
          “Is Cheerleading a Sport?  It Depends,” by Mike Allen
Additional Readings
     “What Is Spirituality?” by Bruce W. Speck
     “Why Spirituality Deserves a Central Place in Liberal Education,” by Alexander W. Astin
 
 Ch. 12     Writing Causal Arguments
What Are Causal Arguments?
Forms of Arguments Focusing on Causes
Forms of Arguments Focusing on Effects
Types of Causes
     Immediate and Remote Causes
     Necessary and Sufficient Causes
Writing a Causal Argument
     Common Errors to Avoid When Writing a Causal Argument
     Sample Student Essay: Causal Argument
          “What Killed Off the Dinosaurs?” by Carlos Mendez
Chapter Summary
Additional Readings
     “The Causes and Nature of Bullying and Social Exclusion in Schools,” by Maria el Mar Badia Martín
     “Sugar and Spice and Puppy Dogs’ Tails: The Psychodynamics of Bullying,” by Ann Ruth Turkel
 
Ch. 13     Writing Proposal Arguments
What Are Proposal Arguments?
Key Elements of a Proposal Argument
     Establishing the Problem
     Identifying Possible Solutions
     Evaluating Solutions
     Establishing the Best Solution
Writing a Proposal Argument
     A Model Process for Writing Proposal Arguments
     Common Errors to Avoid When Writing a Proposal Argument
     Sample Student Essay: Proposal Argument
          “Improving Student Retention at Mountain University,” by Janelle Jackson
Additional Readings
     “How Should We Talk about Student Drinking—and What Should We Do about It?” by Alan David Berkowitz
     “Alcohol Prohibition versus Moderation,” by Franklin B. Drohn and Brandon M. Pyc
 
Ch. 14     Writing Evaluation Arguments
What Are Evaluation Arguments?
Types of Evaluation Arguments
     Aesthetic Evaluations
     Functional Evaluations
     Moral Evaluations
     Mixed Evaluations
Elements of an Evaluation Argument
     Topic or Subject
     Criteria
     Standards
     Consistent Use of Criteria and Standards
Writing an Evaluation Argument
     A Model Process for Writing Evaluation Arguments
     Common Errors to Avoid When Writing an Evaluation Argument
     Sample Student Essay: Evaluation Argument
          “Keys to an Effective Shoe Ad,” by Lilly Boone
Additional Readings
     “The Price of Free Speech: Campus Hate Speech Codes,” by Gerald Uelmen
     “Liberalism, Speech Codes, and Related Problems,” by Cass R. Sunstein
 
 
Appendix 1:    Revision Checklists
Stipulative Definition Argument
Categorical Definition Argument
Causal Argument
Proposal Argument
Evaluation Argument
 
Appendix 2:    Annotated Bibliographies

Annotated Bibliographies
    Definition and Purpose
    Qualities of a Good Annotated Bibliography
    Writing an Annotated Bibliography
    Sample Annotated Bibliography
 
Index.

"A Brief Guide to Writing Academic Arguments" prepares the reader to read and write the types of argument-related source-based writing they are most likely to encounter in college.